Signs of the times

Professor SunHee Kim Gertz's research

Chaucer and Shakespeare: two giants of early English literature. Separating them, though, is a span of 250 years, years among the most turbulent in English history. Indeed--

the English political scene evolved from one characterized by bloody dynastic wars to a relatively stable monarchy;
epidemics of bubonic plague made labor scarce and valuable, helping to move men and women from the bonds of serfdom into guilds and an evolving middle class; and
the Protestant Reformation emerged as an influential force throughout northern Europe and England and challenged the power of the Catholic Church.

The 250 years between Chaucer and Shakespeare were years of transformation, but throughout all the changes, there were many strong traditions that nonetheless remained influential.

The literary scene, 1337-1580

English professor SunHee Kim Gertz explores the relations among literary traditions and innovations in her new book, Chaucer to Shakespeare: 1337-1580. In this study, Gertz avoids the neat chronological separation designated by the terms "Middle Ages" and the "Renaissance" or "Early Modern Europe." Instead, she examines tensions in the art, education, literature, writers, and literary audiences of the time. Some of these tensions were actually created by changes in the use of language and modes of communication. For example--

over time, English replaced French and Latin as the authoritative languages for literature and government;
the invention of the printing press gradually allowed more people access to an increasing volume of less expensive printed material; and
literacy was on the rise, as more members of the middle and aristocratic classes could now read for themselves.

Even with these changes, characteristics associated with medieval literary traditions nonetheless informed the literature, art, and education of this 250-year period.

Tools of literary analysis

Professor Gertz uses three analytical tools to explore particularly rich and varied texts: rhetorical theory, semiotic theory, and a tool she has coined, the "arc." Her literary analyses of "texts"--ranging from paintings to educational treatises to a variety of traditional and less traditional literary genres--allows her to characterize the period's artists, writers, readers, and messages. She is able to do so based on the premise that in order for artists and writers to communicate effectively, they must shape contexts, references, and symbols that audiences already know or understand.

Rhetorical theory focuses on how writers or artists structure contexts and conventions while shaping their narratives, which they hope will communicate a variety of messages effectively.
Semiotics is the study of how signs and symbols communicate simple or multiply layered meanings. The metaphor, a special case of signs, is Gertz's main area of concern within the field of semiotics.
Arc is a term Gertz uses to refer to cultural or political events or themes that may not seem connected at first, because their causal relations are not readily apparent. Not perceived as linearly connected, the arcs enable readers to see how very connected the late "Middle Ages" are to "Early Modern" Europe.

An example: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

One of the many texts that Gertz examines using these tools is a 14th century, anonymous, long narrative poem entitled Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Set in the court of King Arthur, a mysterious knight intrudes upon Camelot to issue a challenge that Sir Gawain finally accepts. Arthur's best knight is to decapitate the green man, and in return, a year later, the Green Knight would do the same to Sir Gawain. To everyone's astonishment, the Green Knight survives, and after a year is almost up, Sir Gawain journeys to find him and receive the return blow. Just before he gives up hope of ever finding his adversary in time, Sir Gawain comes across Sir Bercilak, who claims to know where to find the Green Knight. So, Sir Gawain accepts his invitation to spend three relaxing days at Hautdesert. During those days, he is tempted to break his word, but in spite of the luxury and comforts offered him at Hautdesert, Sir Gawain rides off to meet the Green Knight-Sir Bercilak in disguise. Sir Gawain submits to having his head removed, only to be spared except for a small knick in his neck, for he had not completely passed the tests of courage and virtue set up at Hautdesert.

Rhetorical analysis

The most obvious narrative engine in the poem is the challenge, a device that ordinarily works in a literal fashion: a villain challenges a hero to a duel; the hero accepts; and after a long, hard battle, the hero wins. In this poem, however, the challenge is structured circularly, as an exchange. The exchange demands a return to an earlier point in time, to remember an oath taken a year prior. Further, one result of this exchange is that Sir Gawain returns to Arthur's court with a deeper understanding of what it means to be a hero: one who is courageous and virtuous in ferocious battles and dangerous encounters, but also in daily life. The circular structure of the poem is underscored by the exchange/challenge, but also by a variety of non-linear devices. Taken together, they allow the hero-and the reader-the space for self-reflection (itself a circularly structured activity) and a more complex portrait of virtue and courage.

Semiotic analysis

The test that Sir Gawain finally failed itself was set up in the structure of the exchange. On the three days that the hero was at Hautdesert, Sir Bercilak and Arthur's knight agreed to exchange their winnings of the day. Each day, Lady Bercilak attempted to seduce Sir Gawain, only, however, to be restricted to bestowing a kiss upon him (in increasing number) each day. Sir Gawain would "exchange" these kisses for the various animals Sir Bercilak succeeded in hunting down. But on the third day, Sir Gawain also accepted a green sash from the Lady, who at first presented it as a love token, but finally informed the knight that it would save him from all harm. Sir Gawain took and kept the sash, thereby breaking his part of the bargain.

Interesting from a semiotic point of view is how the green sash-itself heightened as significant by its color-changes in meaning and value. Arthur's knight didn't accept the sash when it represented love; but when its signification changed to salvation, he took it. Three times more its meaning changes, as the Green Knight reveals he's Sir Bercilak, whom Morgana La Fay sent to test Arthur's court. The green sash here comes to mean a test. Again, when Sir Gawain returns to Camelot, its meaning shifts, as it becomes his badge of shame, until Arthur proclaims all should wear it, thereby-finally-creating out of it a sign of community. Such tracking down of a complex sign frequently enables readers to understand what a narrative tries to communicate beyond simple action. In this case, it also illustrates how a metaphor works.

Arcs

Beyond showing how a metaphor can change meaning over time, the green sash has additional implications. At the end of the poem, the green sash becomes a sign of belonging to Camelot, of each member sharing another's burden. In ending the tale in this fashion, the Gawain-Poet also invites our participation in that community while also intimating yet another signification. At about the same time of the poem's composition, England's King Edward III had established the Order of the Garter, members of whom wore sashes inscribed with the motto, "Hony soit qui mal y pense" (Shame to him who thinks evil of it), almost exactly word-for-word the last words of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. If we "arc" forward in time, this literary echo helps make clear how Edward's political experiment created an elite community modeled on the Arthurian spirit and furthered the idea that membership in the Order is restricted to the best that nobility has to offer, thereby demonstrating how Arthurian traditions inspired not only the Gawain-Poet, but even kings.

In this manner, Gertz applies these analytical tools to a broad selection of religious and instructional treatises, plays, histories, and lyrical and narrative poetry. As renowned Shakespearean scholar Professor David Bevington puts it, Gertz "underscore[s] the cross-disciplinary commitment [with her] fresh approach to late medieval art of all genres."